The Harvard Model of HRM Management Essay

The Harvard Model of HRM Management Essay Introduction The closing of the twentieth century has given rise to a vast debate concerning the response of human resource management to the changing external and internal environment of the firm. The late 1990s found the literature somehow settled on the necessity of strategic HRM, but concerned about the new roles that the HR function should adopt in order to meet contemporary organizational challenges (e.g. Kochan, 1997).The strategic role of the HR function means being involved in strategic planning from the outset and not only during the implementation phase and matching employee resources with business needs. This role is expected to occupy significantly more of the HR practitioners time in the future (Anderson, 1997). However, this does not mean that the administrative role will cease to exist, although there is an inherent tension between the outlook required for a strategic HR role and that of the HR specialist in a traditional role (Beer, 1997). One of the important aspects of the chan ging environment especially relevant to management is the information revolution HRM MODEL The early HRM Model Devanna( 1984) emphasizes the interrelatedness and coherence of HRM activities. The HRM cycle in this model consists of four key components: Selection, appraisal, Development and rewards. (figure ). These four HR activities aim to increase organisational performance .The weakness of the model is its apparent perspective nature, it ignores the shareholders interest. The strength of the model, however, is that it express the coherence of internal HR policies. Figure Devanna (1984) model of HRM. The Harvard model of HRM The analytical framework of the Harvard model offered by Beer et al .consists six basic components: Situation factors Stakeholder interests HRM policy choices HR outcomes Long-term consequences Feedback loop through which the output flow directly into the organisation and to the stakeholders Source: (Beer et al 1984) Rationale for  HRM evaluation The notion that HR function should move beyond its administrative and controlling roles and value has been popular in the US management for long time. Druker, theAmerican management guru, suggested , for example that HR Department should behave differently and demonstrate its strategic capabilities , needing itself away from concern with the cost of employees to concern with their yield . According to Phllips (1999) , there are seven points in the management thinking and practices that changed the role HR. Organisational change Flexibility and productivity improvements The adoption of HR strategies The increased importance of human capital Increased accountability Partnership relationships The growing use of HR information systems HR Strategy HR strategies are here taken to mean the patterns of decision regarding HR policies and practices that are used by management to design work and select , train, develop, appraise, motivate and control workers Resource based model of HR Strategy Barney argues that four characteristics of resources and capabilities value, rarity, inimitability and non- substitutability- are important in sustaining competitive advantage. From this perspective, collective learning in the workplace on the part of managers and non managers, basically on how to coordinate workers diverse knowledge and skills and integrate diverse information technology , is strategic asset that rivals find to difficult to replicate. Figure 3summarizes the relationship between resources and capabilities strategies and sustain competitive advantage Figure: The relationship between resource endowments, strategies and sustained competitive advantage.. SHAPE Firms resources and capabilities Value Rarity Inimitability Non-substitutability Strategies Sustained competitive advantage Source: Barney (1991) An integrated model of HR Strategy Bamberger and Meshoulam (2000) integrate the two main models of HR strategy , one approach focusing on logic of managerial control , other focusing on the acquisitions of employees . These two dimensions have four different ideal types of dominant HR strategy. Commitment Collaborative Paternalistic Traditional Figure: Categorizing human resource management strategies. Source (Bamberger and Meshoulam, 2000.) The commitment HR strategy is characterised as focus on the internal development of employee and outcome control Traditional HR is focusing on employee competencies and process bases control The collaborative HR strategy focusing on the organisation subcontracting work and the performance of the company The paternalistic HR strategy involves the learning opportunities and internal promotion of the company. HRM and Performance model For HR measure , demonstrating the link between HRM strategy and organisational performance requires the measurement of some sets of variables. The methodology for ensuring high internal validity would ideally permit a calculation of how different HRM strategies or individual practices affect economic performance while controlling the other factors that might influence those performance outcomes. Figure 4 demonstrates a basic model showing that relationship HRM practices and organisation performance. The HRM value model indicates the overall relationship between three elements. HRM HR performance measures at both individual employee and work team levels Organisational performance measure Figure Human Resource management-organisation performance model (Source; Phillips 1999) SHRM SHRM and Organisational performance link HR strategy, through a diverse range of best practices, shapes employee knowledge and skills, enhances work motivation and provides the opportunity and the means for employees to contribute. These three interrelated processes are shown in figure. Central to the model is the notion that HRM research is required to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of SHRM in order to ensure its contribution and value added to the organisation.( Bratton and Gold 2007) Figure 2. A general theory of SHRM -organisation performance link Source :Bratton and Gold 2007, p 552 Strategy: A strategy is an integrated and coordinated set of commitments and actions designed to exploit core competencies and gain a competitive advantage. In the sense, strategies are purposeful and precede the taking of actions to which they apply (Slevin and Covin, 1997). Business-level strategy is designed to provide value to customers and gain a competitive advantage by exploiting core competencies in specific, individual product markets (Dess et al., 1995). Thus, a business-level strategy reflects a firms belief about where and how it has an advantage over its rivals. Business strategies are concerned with a firms industry position relative to competitors (Porter, 1985). Thus, favourably positioned firms may have a competitive advantage over their industry rivals Hierarchy of strategy: Another aspect of strategic management in the multidivisional business organisation concerns the level to which strategies issues apply. Various authors identify different level of strategy. See figure Corporate Business Functional Figure: Hierarchy of strategy decision making. (Bratton and Gold 2007) Corporate level strategy describes a corporations overall direction in terms of its general philosophy towards the growth and the management of its various business units. Such strategies determine the types of business a corporation wants to be involved in and what business unit should be acquired, modified or sold.( Bratton and Gold 2007) Business level strategy deals with decision and actions pertaining to each business unit, the main objective of a business level strategy being to make the unit more completive in its marketplace. Therefore, Porter (1985) formulates the frameworks that describe three competitive strategies: cost leadership, differentiation and focus. (see figure) Figure: Porters competitive strategies. Strategy-HRM fit The link between strategy and human resource practice has been discussed by a number of researchers. Devanna et al.1984 state that the strategy- HRM relationship is essentially an extension of Chandlers structure follows strategy thesis. They argue that management theorists and practitioners begin to realize the importance of human resources as they grapple with the problem of strategy implementation. It was realized that besides establishing a compatible structure, the successful implementation of a strategy also has to be supported by an appropriate human resource system. Relationship between business strategy and HRM According to contingency theory ( Porter, 1985; Schuler and Jackson, 1987), HRM practices must be combined with specific business strategies if they are to enhance organizational performance. Firms that use a cost-reduction strategy must rigorously control and minimize expenses, and strive for greater economies of scale. Efficiency is important for firms to succeed. Behaviour control increases predictability by routinizing the transformation process, this includes the following HRM practices: standard operating procedures, behavioural performance appraisal, close supervision, and feedback. By attempting to regulate action, this approach to HRM focuses on issues such as reliability and efficiency. These arguments lead to the following hypothesis: HRM based on behaviour control is positively related to performance for firms emphasizing cost-reduction as business strategy. HRM based on input control is positively related to performance for firms emphasizing innovation as business strategy HRM based on output control is positively related to performance for firms emphasizing quality-enhancement as business strategy Organisation change perspective SHRM SPERSPECTIVE HRM and TQM According to Dale (1999, p. 9), TQM is the mutual cooperation of everyone in an organization and associated business processes to produce products and services which meet and, hopefully, exceed the needs and expectations of customers. According to Dessler (2000, p. 678), HRM is the policies and practices one needs to carry out the people or human resource aspects of a management position including recruiting, screening, training, rewarding and appraisals Linkage between HRM and TQM HRM and TQM tend to focus on creating such a high performance culture or system. This can be done by the introduction of so-called Best Practices or high performance work practices (HPWPs) that will deliver sustainable competitive advantage towards the organization. In other words, both HRM and TQM focus on creating sustained competitive advantage through high performance work practices such as leadership, empowerment, teamwork, employee development, rotation and pay for performance. Thus, TQM and HRM both underline the existence of forms of HPWS that drive organizations towards excellent performance (Boselie and van der Wiele,2002). Many commentators argue that in order to be fully successful and self-sustaining TQM requires an extensive refashioning of HRM practices (e.g. Dale et al., 1994;), whose elements consist of essentially dimensions of human resource management. Empowerment Empowerment is one of the HRM/TQMs powerful instruments for a quality culture that encourages employee involvement, motivation, satisfaction, deliberate wilfulness to stay and loyalty towards the organization (Geralis and Terziovsky, 2003). One way of empowering employees is to give them the resources, responsibility and authority to plan, organize, implement, measure their work and make decisions that are necessary for them to maximize their contribution towards the organization with efficient and effective operation Training and development Training and development have been recognized as essential to the implementation of HRM/TQM (Snape et al., 1995). It leads to increase employees job involvement, facilitates the updating of skills, leads to an increased sense of belonging, well-being and benefit, increase commitment towards the organization and strengthen the organizations competitiveness (Acton and Golden, 2002). According to Cherrington (1995), a successful training and development program would create more favourable employee attitudes; loyalty and help employees in their personal development and job involvement. Moreover, Zhang (1999) stressed the importance of training and development for continual updating and improvement, identifying one source of human motivation at work as intrinsic motivation and involvement; growing; learning and developing ones self. Reward and recognition Reward and recognition can be defined as benefits, such as increased salary, bonuses and promotion resulting from the annual review of performance, which is conferred for public acknowledgement of superior performance with respects to goals (Juran and Gryna, 1993). Rewards for quality efforts appear to have a significantly positive relationship to employee morale (Kassicieh and Yourstone, 1998). According to Herzbergs (1996) hygiene/motivator theory, recognition is one of the four motivators, which can contribute to employee attitudes (i.e. job involvement) when it is present. Reward and recognition activities are valued by employees, and therefore provide motivation or incentives, if executed appropriately, can, to a certain degree, secure employees involvement to their jobs and make their jobs more enjoyable and thus, creating an overall involvement within the respective organization. Organizational communication Organizational communication can be defined as the process of sharing information with other individuals (Troutt et al., 1995). It is critical within organizations for connecting employees and permits organizations to function, as well as an essential element to the implementation of HRM/TQM (Gray and Laidlaw, 2002) Employee participation Employee participation is a process for empowering members of an organization to make decisions and to solve problems appropriate to their levels in the organization. Cassar (1999) reported employee participation is one of the most researched contemporary management practices, primarily because it is often associated with enhancing employees positive attitudes and behaviours in the workplace. Also, through participation, employees will envision their jobs as more enjoyable, resulting in increasing levels of job involvement towards the organization Customer focus According to Philips (1995), customer focus can be defined as the degree to which a firm continuously satisfies customer needs and expectations. Morrow (1997) reported that customer focus is evident in the job design principle, which emphasizes on (among other things) establishing client relationship and feedback and, in turn, is associated with higher levels of job satisfaction, communication, job involvement and more favourable perceptions of the work outcome. SHRM AND CULTURE SHRM- CULTURE FEXIBILITY RECREMENT AND SELECTION VALUE ANAYSIS HR PLANNING JOB DESIGN EMPLOYEEMENT RELATION TQM INNOVATION Flexibility Rapid advance in technology and the pressure exerted to respond to global markets are said to be having a significant effect on work patterns, work location and work times ,although some survey evidence suggests such claims may be exaggerated ( Taylor 2002) . In planning how to respond, many organisations involve the idea of flexibility . Type of flexibility The flexible firm by Atkinson 91985) identifies four types of flexibility; Functional : a firms ability to adjust and deploy the skills of its employee to match the tack required by its changing workload and production methods Numerical: a firms ability to adjust the level of labour inputs to meet fluctuations in output. Distancing strategies: the replace of internal workers with external subcontractors, referred to as outsourcing Financial: support for the achievement of flexibility through the pay and reward structure. Employment flexibility and HRM Flexibility is an ambiguous and ill-defined concept ( Mayne et al., 1996). The flexibility debate tends to concentrate on the notions of functional and numerical flexibility and the implications of adopting either one or the other. Functional flexibility is usually seen as the ability to respond to changes in business needs by having multi-skilled, adaptable and internally mobile employees (Blyton and Morris, 1992). It requires a skilled and committed workforce that can only be achieved by investing in training and long-term employment relationships and is, therefore, connected with the establishment of internal labour markets and primary sector employment. Numerical flexibility, on the other hand, is the ability of the firm to vary the quantity of work employed to match changes in the business needs. It represents a cost-cutting approach that looks to externalise the employment relationship, and is associated with short-term and precarious employment conditions in the secondary labo ur market segment, under which workers have little incentive or opportunity to be functionally flexible. Flexible working Stredwick and Ellis(2005) suggest key advantages of flexing working . For business, there is the chance to exploit the 24 hours economy and open new labour markets that avoid traditional working hours patterns. Employee seem to like flexible working too, achieving far more in the flexible mode with no desire to go back traditional working patterns. According to the (Department of Trade and Industry, 2003, P 12) there are ranges of possible ways of working hours. They are as bellow. Annualized hours Compressed hours Flexitime Home working Job- sharing Shift-sharing Staggered hours Term-time working INNOVATION

High School Internet Censorship Essays -- Argumentative Persuasive Top

High School Internet Censorship       The common image that comes to mind on the topic of censorship is that of book burning. Dating back to ancient times, the easiest way to deal with unwanted writings has been to get rid of them, usually by heaping them into a blazing pyre. In his most famous science fiction novel, Fahrenheit 451, Ray Bradbury warns of a futuristic society where all literature is destroyed under a kerosene flame and the citizens' freedoms are kept in check by the lack of written information. In fear of this kind of totalitarianism, many bibliophiles have fought against all manners of censorship, wielding the first amendment and the rights recognized by our fore-fathers. But with the technological advances of this the last decade of the twentieth century and the up welling of a new informational medium comes a new twist to the struggle for freedom of expression.    The inherent educational value of the Internet is being realized in schools across the country. The vast web of information is easily accessible and is quickly taking the place of traditional library resources, because of its current events and diverse views. Understanding the importance of this new technology, the Clinton administration is pushing for school Internet connection with the goal of "more than 97 percent of public schools connected by the year 2000 (Hoffman 15)." However, serious problems arise due to the very nature of the Net. Alongside the educational and commercial resources are sites with pornography, criminal advocacy, and illegal drug manufacturing information. According to Syllabus magazine, "a keystone question becomes how to deal with this richness and diversity of information and interchanges while providing a safe e... ...ndividuals is a far better educational goal than developing 'regulated' individuals (Grinnell)." While high school students are learning other skills to prepare them for the rest of their lives, they can also learn, through a powerful medium like the Internet, responsibility. In this way students can also realize the dimensions of their freedom of expression and inalienable rights, that are so very often taken for granted.    Bibliography Bruce, Marty (1999). Censorship on the Internet. [Online] Available: http://www.purplenet.net/~marty/ip.htm Grinnel, Curt. Internet Issues: Hotchkiss High School Internet Policy Hoffman, Ellen. "The Dark Side of the Internet: Controls on Student Access." Syllabus High School Edition. September, 1999. pp14-17. Net Censorship Crisis. [Online] Hotwired. Available: http://www.hotwired.com/special/indecent/dcpc.html High School Internet Censorship Essays -- Argumentative Persuasive Top High School Internet Censorship       The common image that comes to mind on the topic of censorship is that of book burning. Dating back to ancient times, the easiest way to deal with unwanted writings has been to get rid of them, usually by heaping them into a blazing pyre. In his most famous science fiction novel, Fahrenheit 451, Ray Bradbury warns of a futuristic society where all literature is destroyed under a kerosene flame and the citizens' freedoms are kept in check by the lack of written information. In fear of this kind of totalitarianism, many bibliophiles have fought against all manners of censorship, wielding the first amendment and the rights recognized by our fore-fathers. But with the technological advances of this the last decade of the twentieth century and the up welling of a new informational medium comes a new twist to the struggle for freedom of expression.    The inherent educational value of the Internet is being realized in schools across the country. The vast web of information is easily accessible and is quickly taking the place of traditional library resources, because of its current events and diverse views. Understanding the importance of this new technology, the Clinton administration is pushing for school Internet connection with the goal of "more than 97 percent of public schools connected by the year 2000 (Hoffman 15)." However, serious problems arise due to the very nature of the Net. Alongside the educational and commercial resources are sites with pornography, criminal advocacy, and illegal drug manufacturing information. According to Syllabus magazine, "a keystone question becomes how to deal with this richness and diversity of information and interchanges while providing a safe e... ...ndividuals is a far better educational goal than developing 'regulated' individuals (Grinnell)." While high school students are learning other skills to prepare them for the rest of their lives, they can also learn, through a powerful medium like the Internet, responsibility. In this way students can also realize the dimensions of their freedom of expression and inalienable rights, that are so very often taken for granted.    Bibliography Bruce, Marty (1999). Censorship on the Internet. [Online] Available: http://www.purplenet.net/~marty/ip.htm Grinnel, Curt. Internet Issues: Hotchkiss High School Internet Policy Hoffman, Ellen. "The Dark Side of the Internet: Controls on Student Access." Syllabus High School Edition. September, 1999. pp14-17. Net Censorship Crisis. [Online] Hotwired. Available: http://www.hotwired.com/special/indecent/dcpc.html

Benetton baby Essay

Benetton baby was produced as a 1991 advertising campaign that also included images of a priest kissing a nun and coloured leaves floating in a sea of petrol. Although I would presume Benetton would be trying to show the beauty and goodness of the new born baby they claim â€Å"Benetton is not trying to emphasise the beauty a and goodness of its apparel, but rather is trying to capture the interest or people†¦ The objective is to brake through the barrier of indifference. † But I believe that the image is in anyway offensive or wrong. The image consists of a newborn baby trailing its umbilical cord, the baby is covered in blood, and two hands, presumably of a Doctor, are waiting to receive the child. This was created to appear on billboard so the shire size would make the image impossible to be missed. The background is white therefore the baby stands out. The logo is included to the left of the advertisement and is very small almost insignificant. The image is very clear and not edited in any way to make the situation more attractive I agree with the advertisement entirely. Although it is a strange way to advertise I have no objections. The image is very large and might not be what all people want to witness it but birth of babies are publicized on the television as entertainment or education in more graphic detail. Isn’t a baby being born â€Å"the most wonderful experience†? But people did however complain, the public disagreed strongly with this image â€Å"the poster†¦. Has attracted more than 800 complaints. † 800 is not a particularly large amount when in comparison with the millions that would have witness the advertisement. The complaints consisted of â€Å"the image is shocking and distasteful†¦ â€Å", â€Å"many children are reported to have found it disturbing†¦ â€Å"and objections regarding the â€Å"exploitative use of such an image to sell clothes. † All complaints where made to an advertising organisation called the ASA. The ‘Advertising Standards Authority’ began in 1962 by the advertising industry. The ASA practises a voluntary code of practice called ‘The British Code of Advertising and sales promotion practise. The code declares that all advertisements must be legal, decent honest and truthful. They must not be offensive or downgrade competitors they must not deliberately misinform. Benetton baby does break some of these rules. The first rule broken in some points of view is ‘decency’ â€Å"No advert should contain any matter that is likely to cause widespread offence†¦. â€Å"The advert may be offensive to a mother who recently had a miscarriage. As to a woman whose child has recently died or to a woman who cannot become a mother. Etc. however this information cant be held against Benetton as a second rule in the code states, â€Å"[t]he fact that a product may be found offensive by some people Is not†¦ a sufficient basis under the code for objecting an advertisement for it† therefore the advert is within its own rights. ‘Honesty’ â€Å"†¦. cause be easily grasped and clearly understood†¦ † the advertisement isn’t entirely clear. From the advertisement alone you are not able to grasp what exactly the clothing company is retailing. However the advertisement does not lead you to believe that the Benetton Company sells babies or anything else, for that matter. â€Å"Looking death in the face† An ad showing the image of a man dying of AIDS, surrounded by his family. The logo is present also but, as with the others, it is small and unimportant. The camera shot is very provocative, it is very close up. The dying man obviously and purposely is made to resemble Jesus this has been done by computer. The image almost makes you fell an intruder in the scene. This has led to furious debate about the limits of advertising. Benetton claims, â€Å"It was as if the reality of suffering only had dignity and moral value in the editorial section of a newspaper and lost all its ability to denounce and sensitize people when in `contagious’ contact with advertising. † Published by an English daily before its official presentation, the photo provoked a controversy that extended from Great Britain throughout the world. The AIDS ad may, however be seen by some as trying to profit from people’s pain rather than simply offending the more traditionalist members of society. One British AIDS charity agreed, while some American gay activists disagree, saying the advertisements gives the issue a higher public profile. The parents of the dying man may feel the same since, according to Benetton, they approved the company’s use of the photo. With this new project, Benetton has once again chosen to look reality in the face by embarking upon a social issue, as he did in previous campaigns that focused on war, Aids, discrimination and racism. Harshly attacked by some and internationally applauded by others, Benetton’s campaigns have managed to tear down the wall of indifference contributing at increasing the awareness of universal problems among world’s citizens. Both the advertisements, â€Å"Benettons baby† and â€Å"looking death in the face† Where concealed and eventually banned across the world. There is more to this than the old saying that all publicity is good publicity. Oliviero Toscani, Benetton’s â€Å"adman,† claims the campaigns are not designed to offend, but rather to â€Å"raise consciousness. † A more plausible interpretation is that Benetton is trying to sell sweaters to the young and hip and those who like to think of themselves in that way. What better means to appeal to them than by offending an older generation of their parents? 7th January 2000 – At the beginning of the new millennium, Benetton publicized the real faces of the prisoners on death row, without a future. Remorseful or unremorseful, smiling or sad, healthy or ill, they all are guilty in the eyes of the human law. Many have their arms crossed; one is shown reading the Bible. Almost all of them are looking directly at the camera, at you. These portraits of dozens of individuals sentenced to death are the results of Oliviero Toscani’s two years of work which he visited several American prisons. The campaign is about the death penalty this project aims at presentation to the public the reality of capital punishment, aiming to prevent people considering the death penalty as a distant matter, just something they might hear about on television. Toscani’s images intend to give back a human face to the prisoners on death row, to remind â€Å"respectable people who are always so sure they’re right†¦ † that these people are human Beings not virtual characters easily removed or secured with a simple click as with a game. The campaign appeared on billboards and on the pages of the major publishing companies around Europe, America and Asia in January 2000. Toscani spoke for the prisoners when he said, â€Å"that having killed has changed them forever, and for the worst. † Speedy Rice a writer, on behalf of the NACDl (National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers) who has contributed to the campaign by patiently contacting and negotiating with prisons’ Mr. Rice mentions that during 1999 there has been a huge rise in the number of executions in the United States. Of the 600 death sentences that were passed between 1976 and the end of the 20thcentury, approximately 100 executions were carried out in 1999. Benetton advertisements to me have a strong meaning, which differs from individual to individual. For some the adverts are merely indicating how ignorant the world is today. How people emphasise on looking a certain way and how they foresee others. To others they may be seen as a source of entertainment something to discuss on the train or to your local cab driver that will never silence. There are many other views but mine is this I agree entirely with the advertisements, although others wont. The ads are unique and contain moral issues that may keep the brain puzzled all day to find. As there has been such uproar in disagreement concerning the ads this has given Benetton a vast amount of free advertisement. I like all the adverts I have been analysing although I do prefer the â€Å"death row† images. These appeal to me a majority more as they have more of a moral message, and become challenging to comprehend the death penalty law. You are left asking yourself, â€Å"Do I agree with the death penalty? † All of the benetton advertisements caused great amounts of controversial disagreement. The three mentioned esspecialy, as to more than half the world they have no meaning, as to others they offend highly.

President Jimmy Carters Speech On Foreign Policy - 916 Words

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